19th Century Female Soldiers
Females who enlisted into military service during the 19th century kept up their disguises in many ways. It was easy to disguise themselves as soldiers because many men at the time were small in stature. Female soldiers could pass as young men due to their lack of facial hair, loose fitting uniforms, and they blended in with the vast amount of underage boys who enlisted. Some women even bound their breasts, cut their hair, padded their trousers, added padding to their uniforms to look more muscular, practiced moving with a masculine gait, wore fake facial hair, and smoked cigars and pipes.
Army Medical History- Introduction
July 27, 1775 Congress established a medical department for the Continental Army. It had a rudimentary system of care. No designation of military rank was established. The new medical department was a pseudo-civilian medical department. Personnel were not exactly soldiers, no rank nor uniforms, but more than civilians because they were subject to the rules, regulation and procedures of the Army. This confusion continued throughout the 18th century through the War of 1812.Below is a list of personnel and pay for the Continental Army Medical Department:· One Director General and Chief Physician, his pay per day, four Dollars.· Four Surgeons, each ditto, one and one third of a dollar.· One Apothecary, ditto, one and one third of a dollar.· Surgeon's mates, each ditto, two thirds of a dollar.· One Clerk, ditto, two thirds of a dollar.· Two Storekeepers, each four dollars per month.· One nurse to every ten sick, one fifteenth of a dollar per day, or two dollars per month.· Laborers occasionally.May 14, 1818, Congress passed an Act to reorganize the staff departments. It called for a permanent Medical department and one Surgeon General. The creation of a permanent central military medical organization which would allow for preventive medicine to be developed. Through periods of administrative issues, financial problems, development in knowledge and experience of war, the Medical department began to create medical practices to help the survival of their soldiers and strengthen the army.Army surgeons stationed throughout the US were subject to the same overall discipline. With support from civilian physicians, the Army Medical Department collected significant statistics on weather, climate, and geographical features at the various forts. This information determined how meteorological factors influence the health and nature of diseases of soldiers under their care.For further information about the creation of our nation’s medical department follow the link here:https://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/medicaldepartment/partone.html
Army Medical History- Revolutionary War, Smallpox, First Mass Inoculation 1777
Revolutionary WarDuring the Revolutionary War disease was a major contributor to death in the Continental Army, nearly 90% of soldiers deaths were caused by disease. Smallpox virus was the major contributor. Battle was not just between soldiers but with disease and infection as well. An example of this during the war was when the Continental Army invaded Canada. The goal was to drive British forces from Quebec and convince Canada to bring their province to American colonies. However this mission failed. The main reason? Smallpox. Smallpox was highly contagious and deadly. The death rate of smallpox was approximately 30% (Variola Major strain). Nearly ten thousand soldiers marched to Canada in fall of 1775. Three thousand fell ill with smallpox. Illness was detrimental to the invasion. By spring, half of the soldiers were ill with smallpox and a retreat was ordered.First Mass Inoculation 1777 In order to avoid another tragedy like in Canada, George Washington implemented a mass inoculation campaign. The campaign reduced the smallpox mortality in the US Army to less than 2%. At the time smallpox death rate was 15-50%. Inoculation was an early form of vaccination that used live virus. A milder, and sometimes deadly case of the disease was induced in order to build an immunity. Washington’s controversial medical actions, including his decision to inoculate the continental army against smallpox, is credited with assisting with the defeat of the British and America gaining independence.For more information about the first mass inoculation in the U.S. follow the link here: https://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/GW&smallpoxinoculation.html
Army Medical History- War of 1812
Military Medicine in the War of 1812There is hardly on the face of the earth a less enviable situation than that of an Army Surgeon after a battle – worn out and fatigued in body and mind, surrounded by suffering, pain, and misery, much of which he knows it is not in his power to heal…. I never underwent such fatigue as I did the first week at Butler's Barracks. The weather was intensely hot, the flies in myriads, and lighting on the wounds, deposited their eggs, so that maggots were bred in a few hours.Tiger Dunlop, British surgeon to the 89th (The Princess Victoria's) Regiment of Foot, War of 1812.Death from disease was a major contributor over battle wounds. Dysentery, typhoid, pneumonia, malaria, measles and smallpox were the main culprits. Food poisoning was also common along with “flux” which was a term for all types of diarrhea.Although major medicine discoveries were decades away, skilled surgeons and doctors understood the benefits of cleanliness. In December of 1814, the Medical Department released directives concerning how to clean and care out on the field. Chamber pots were to be cleaned three times a day and lined with water or charcoal. Beds and sheets were to be aired and exposed to sunlight each day. The straw in each bed sack was to be changed each month. If a patient was discharged or died, the straw was to be burned. These tasks were carried out by female attendants who were paid no more than $6 a month plus one ration a day.
Army Medical History- Mexican War
Mexican War 1846-1848Both the U.S. and Mexican armies used muskets that fired large caliber musket balls. These soft lead projectiles could cause devastating injuries. Artillery rounds also increased the magnitude of injuries. This war also saw the use of edged weapons. Lances, swords, and bayonets caused severe injuries. Due to medical and time constraints a surgeon usually resorted to amputation. One of the advances that helped soldiers survive intense surgical procedures was the introduction of anesthetics, which were first introduced in the spring of 1847. Anesthetics helped with pain control which helped reduce the number of deaths that occurred from shock.As with the war in previous years, disease was the major contributor to soldier death. American volunteer regiments could expect to lose a little over a tenth of its men in the Mexican War. Cramped and unsanitary hospitals and sick quarters spread disease quickly throughout the regiments.Medical field bags had become standardized during the war. Medical kits contained various items to help with injuries and sickness on the field. Powder of jalapa plant was used as a purgative and diuretic. Silver nitrate was used as an antiseptic. Tincture of opium was included as a cough suppressant. Castor oil was another common item in the kit, used as a laxative. To treat symptoms of malaria some soldiers utilized quinine powder to help with fever.
Army Medical History- Civil War
MAJ Jonathan Letterman Known as the “Father of Modern Battlefield Medicine,” MAJ John Letterman graduated from Jefferson Medical College in 1849. The same year he assumed the rank of assistant surgeon in the Army Medical Department. From 1849 until 1861, Letterman served on various military campaigns against Native American tribes in Florida, Minnesota, New Mexico, and California. In the beginning of the Civil War medical logistics were lacking. There were no dedicated wagons to assist with removal of injured and dead soldiers. Additionally the medical logistics at the time were inefficient, causing preventable deaths.MAJ Letterman developed an evacuation system that consisted of three stations:1) A Field Dressing Station - located on or next to the battlefield where medical personnel would apply the initial dressings and tourniquets to wounds.2) A Field Hospital – located close to the battlefield, usually in homes or barns, where emergency surgery could be performed and additional treatment given.3) A Large Hospital – Located away from the battlefield and providing facilities for the long term treatment of patients. Letterman started the very first Ambulance Corps, training men to act as stretcher bearers and operate wagons to pick up the wounded and bring them to field dressing stations. The success of the Ambulance Corps was proven at the battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862. While there were over 23,000 casualties, medical personnel were able to remove all of the wounded from the field in just 24 hours. The battle of Fredericksburg, where the Union suffered an additional 12,000 casualties, and the battle of Gettysburg, with 14,000 Union wounded, both tested Letterman’s system to the extreme, but again, it proved a great success, saving thousands of soldiers’ lives. In March of 1864, the system was officially adopted for the U.S. Army by an Act of Congress. MAJ Letterman also addressed camp hygiene issues and created numerous solutions including:· Bigger and more nutritious portions· Better cooking methods· More hygienic handling of food· Ensured breakfast· Improved shelter· Breaks for rest mandated· Improved supplies, ex: clean uniforms· After 1 month as chief medical officer, disease for Army of Potomac decreased by a third.MAJ Letterman also accessed the medical supply system and overhauled it. Letterman created a tiered supply chain that decentralized supplies from the brigade HQ in the rear to forward units on the battlefield. Each brigade was ensured one hospital wagon, one medical supply wagon, and one medical chest and knapsack for each medical officer. This allowed the army to be more mobile.
Army Medical History- Indian Wars
Indian Wars (1866-1886)After the Civil War, surgeons who accompanied troops fighting in the Indian Wars conflicts usually worked with small and isolated units. They did not have the aid of a disciplined and well-trained Hospital Corps. These surgeons also did not have the understanding of disease and infection that would not come until much later. Although the Medical Department had its first significant lesson in improving the health of soldiers and even Native Americans, through MAJ Letterman’s additions and improvements and when it tried to reduce the disease among the Apaches tribe, the Army was not prepared for struggles the war brought about.The battle of Wounded Knee was a turning point. It was the first battle of the Indian Wars in which the Medical Department's Hospital Corps took part. It was also the last battle of the conflict. This battle was the last time wounded soldiers had physicians who were not familiar with the danger of germs. This marked a turning point for the Army Medical Department.
Army Medical History- Spanish American War, Yellow Fever, Panama Canal
During the Spanish-American War in 1898, the U.S. Army forces were hit with massive casualties due to Yellow-fever. Medical professionals did not know how the illness was transmitted. After the war members of the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission, headed by Walter Reed, traveled to Cuba. The mission was to study the disease and determine how it is transmitted. Initial studies pointed suggested that a living host was needed due to the incubation period of 10 to 17 days. Commission members’ decided to test Cuban physician Carlos Finaly’s mosquito-vector theory that he proposed in 1881.American physician and committee member, Jesse Lazear tested this theory by hatching mosquito eggs and allowing them to feed on patients with Yellow fever. The mosquito then fed on volunteers over a period of two weeks, no infections resulted. However the mosquitoes fed again two days later and the volunteers fell ill with the disease. This proved that mosquitoes, specifically the Aedes aegypti variety, were the transmission vector of yellow fever. The two volunteers exposed recovered, however Lazear was not as fortunate. He contracted yellow fever and died in September 1900. In 1901 Clara Maass, a volunteer nurse, and two Spanish immigrants also perished from these tests. These deaths caused a public outcry and immediate cessation of yellow fever experiments in Cuba.The research by the commission determined the time period (12-20 days) in which the mosquito could infect another human. They also determined that after infection, a victim would typically fall ill within six days. Reed’s research on yellow fever was instrumental in the fight against yellow fever. He is also credited with using the first type of medical consent during these experiments in Cuba.
Army Medical Advancements
One of the key elements to securing victory in times of war is keeping troops healthy and fit. As technology and warfare advance so does the ill effects on soldiers. Necessity is the mother of innovation and innovative healthcare will always be needed in times of war.
Army Space Institute at Fort Leavenworth
Beginning in October of 1984, the Army Space Council, a part of the Army’s Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans at the Pentagon met to discuss the Army’s role in future space operations. On 4 October, General Maxwell Thurman, the Vice Chief of Staff of the Army, directed the Army’s Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) to “develop an operational concept for the Army in space.” Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, which housed TRADOC’s Command and General Staff College (CGCS), became the location of the Army Space Initiatives Study (ASIS). General Thurman wanted thirty of what he called “Bright Guys” from the Army to work closely with representatives from the Ballistic Missile Defense Program, Semi-Automatic Ground Environment or SAGE Institute International, and the Rand Corporation. From March to 13 December of 1985, ASIS completed a Threat Statement for the Army Space Concept, and developed the Army Space Master Plan for the US Army’s use of space operations through 2025.In June 1986, TRADOC established the Army Space Institute (ASI), co-located at Fort Leavenworth’s CGSC. The unit crest in the Frontier Army Museum’s possession was worn by Soldiers of the unit on their dress uniforms. ASI would continue to develop doctrine and instruct Army leadership on the uses of space to students at CGSC with a specific focus of small unit integration. Besides teaching in a schoolhouse setting, the Commandant of ASI also published articles in Army magazines such as Army Trainer that stressed the benefits of space such as improved communication with units on the battlefield, accurate weather reports and navigation through the newly established Global Positioning System (GPS). In 1989, the Army implemented widespread GPS demonstrations for tactical use at Fort Bragg NC, Fort Campbell KY, and Fort Stewart GA. By 1990, the Army ordered the deactivation of ASI and the task of instruction and doctrine development passed to the U.S. Army Space Command (ARSPACE), located at Colorado Springs. Though in the process of deactivating, ASI personnel alongside ARSPACE deployed to Saudi Arabia to train units at the tactical level with GPS and how to utilize satellite imagery in preparation for Operation Desert Storm. Accurate navigation, up to date weather reports, and satellite images of enemy positions proved crucial to the overall success of Coalition Forces.Further Reading:ARSPACE is now known as the United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command and their website contains a detailed history of ASI and ARSPACE operations. Chapter 3 and 4. https://www.smdc.army.mil/ABOUT/History/.The periodicals section of the Combined Arms Research Library at Fort Leavenworth, KS contains copies of Army Trainer.MAJ. Steven C. Siegel, “Army Space Institute,” Army Trainer 6, no. 4 (Summer 1987): 20-21.Image of the Army Space Institute Insignia located at the Frontier Army Museum at Fort Leavenworth Kansas.https://cdm16040.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p15040coll3/id/411
Citizens’ Military Training Camp (CMTC)
Creation of the Citizens' Military Camps Program The first Citizens’ Military Training Camp (CMTC) began in 1921, but the road to CMTC started almost a decade earlier. In 1912 the War Department recommended a training program for citizens’ to supplement the National Guard. The following year President Woodrow Wilson created training camps in Monterey, CA, and Gettysburg, PA. Due to their success the camps doubled in 1914.With the escalation of World War 1, American citizens worried about their preparedness for large-scale conflict. From this worry emerged the Preparedness Movement. Former Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army Leonard Wood, and former President Theodore Roosevelt led the movement to prepare the United States military for possible involvement in World War I. Prior to entering WWI, private citizens organized "Plattsburgh Camps", a volunteer pre-enlistment training program. In 1915, volunteers implemented the camps in Plattsburg, NY to train young, college-educated, white men. America's involvement in World War I paused the camps.Graduates of the Plattsburg camps created the Military Training Camp Association (MTCA) and pushed for the formation of more training camps. MTCA lobbied for mandatory training, but a compromise was reached when the National Defense Act of 1920 created voluntary military training in the form of CMTCs and Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC). In 1921, the U.S. military held 12 CMTCs nationwide. The Purpose of the ProgramCMTCs trained and commissioned young men into the U.S. Army. To become an Army second lieutenant, cadets attend four years of camp and complete all four courses: Basic, Red, White, and Blue. The Basic course was the first-year introductory course, covering foundational military knowledge. In the two subsequent years, Red and White, cadets are educated in their specific branch. In their final year, they finish out their branch education and are instructed in leadership, and participate in activities like Sergeant For a Day. A Day at CMTCCadets began their day with five hours of military instruction, including drill and ceremony, marksmanship, and branch-specific (infantry, cavalry, artillery, etc) training. The camps allowed older cadets a sixth hour of individual study time. Cadets also participated in sports, including boxing, football, swimming, baseball, and volleyball. Recreation included sporting tournaments, dances, card games, and going to the movies. Segregation in Camps CMTCs occurred during an era of great racial division in the United States. In 1923, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) criticized the War Department for not accepting non-white cadets. For most of its existence, CMTCs barred the participation of black Americans. CMTCs did not last long enough to be integrated. The Army later established camps for African-Americans in 1936 at Fort Riley Kansas and Fort Howard, Maryland.The End of CMTCThe CMTC ran for nearly two decades with 370,000 men in attendance. Of those men, only 5,000 cadets commissioned into the U.S. Army, a less-than two percent success rate. Deemed too costly, the Army ended the program in 1940.
Coffee in the Army
In the United States coffee has been a coveted substance since the American Revolution and became a staple in military life. After throwing tea into the sea Americans chose coffee as the preferred drink, symbolizing yet another step away from England. During the Revolution coffee houses were the center of political discussion. Political or diplomatic discussions over coffee was a common occurrence. Coffee houses in Boston and New York served as areas for tradesmen, merchants, and businessmen to discuss the arrival and departure of ships and make plans for commerce. When people moved toward the frontier, such as traveling the Oregon Trail, they moved coffee with them. Some travelers brought as much as five pounds of coffee with them. Many women mention making coffee as part of their morning routines while on their trek west. War spread the popularity of the drink, especially during the Civil War, into army life. For soldiers coffee served as a morale booster, a source of energy, and a comfort drink. Coffee was greatly esteemed and coveted during the Civil War. In 1887, soldier John D. Billings reminisced about coffee, “How often, after being completely jaded by a night march…have I had a wash, if there was water to be had, made and drunk my pint or so of coffee, and felt as fresh and invigorated as if just arisen from a night’s sound sleep!” Union and Confederate troops both had coffee rations, but coffee rations were very limited in the south. Confederate soldiers tried to duplicate the strong, warm drink by using chicory, corn, rye, okra seeds, sweet potatoes, acorns, and peanuts with disappointing results. Coffee rations during the Civil War were brought to camps in oat sacks by the quartermaster department. To divide the portions of coffee evenly throughout the companies a blanket was laid out on the ground and individual piles of coffee were laid out on the blanket. Each soldier would take a pile. Soldiers generally made their own coffee to their taste, rather than the company cook making it in a large mess kettle and serving it to them.Instant coffee became popular for soldiers during WWI. It was easier to make in the trenches because it was water soluble. It was also great for morale, providing a comforting warm drink and a reminder of home. During both WWI and WWII the Red Cross dispersed wagons with coffee and donuts to troops.
Corps of Discovery Members
Sacagawea’s FamilySacagawea belonged to the Lemhi Shoshone Indians also known as Snake Indians. The name Snake Indians came from their distinctive trait in quickly hiding away when discovered. Her name in the Shoshone language means “Bird Woman’ and in Hidatsa “Boat Launcher.” Toussaint Charbonneau acquired Sacagawea when she was about 11-15 years old, later he made her his wife. He was about 41 years old. Sacagawea had a son named Jean Baptiste. Shoshone tradition was for the first born son to be nicknamed “Pomp” meaning leader. She also had a daughter named Lisette. After joining the Corps of Discovery Sacagawea was reunited with some of her family and friends when the expedition meet with her native Shoshone tribe. She met up with her brother but learned that the rest of her family, except for one other brother and a nephew, were deceased.Sacagawea on the Corps of DiscoveryMost of what is known about Sacagawea comes from the journals of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark while on the expedition. Sacagawea was a guide and interpreter for the Corps of Discovery. She joined the expedition at Fort Mandan in 1805 when Lewis and Clark hired her husband, Toussaint Charbonneau, as an interpreter. She was a skilled food gatherer and could identify berries, plants, and roots for medicinal purposes and food. She also served as a calming and diplomatic presence when the party encountered Native American tribes, who could have been hostile if she was not there. She proved to be assertive and a quick thinker on the expedition. For example, while traveling by river one of the boats nearly capsized, but Sacagawea had the forethought to quickly gather important papers, books, medicine, and navigation equipment. She did all this while caring for her infant son, who she gave birth to while on the expedition. She parted from the Corps of Discovery at the same location she joined, Fort Mandan in 1806 on the return journey. Sacagawea was a valuable member of the expedition. Clark later wrote to her husband in 1806 stating Sacagawea “deserved a greater reward for her attention and services on that route than we had in our power to give her.”Sacagawea after the ExpeditionIn 1809 Sacagawea, Charbonneau, and John Baptiste went to St. Louis where they made an agreement with Clark who would give the family land to farm if they agreed to let Clark educate John Baptiste. Farming in St. Louis was not successful for them. Leaving John Baptist with Clark, who became his godfather, Sacagawea and Charbonneau left to join a fur trading company. After giving birth to Lisette in 1812 Sacagawea’s health deteriorated. She became very ill and died around the age of 25 at Fort Manual, ND. The fort’s chief clerk, John Luttig wrote that Sacagawea “died of a putrid fever, she was a good and the best woman in the fort.” Clark assumed legal guardianship of Lisette and John Baptiste. While little is known about Lisette’s fate, John Baptiste led a successful and educated life traveling in Europe and holding various jobs in America.
Fort Leavenworth Chaplains and Chapels
Chaplains have been part of the U.S. Army since the Chaplain Corps was established on 29 July, 1775. It is one of the oldest and smallest branches of the Army. Chaplains serve as religious leaders and have the rank of a military commissioned officer. However, they do not possess the duties or responsibilities of command. Army regulations prohibit chaplains from bearing arms and are classified as noncombatants.During its early years, Fort Leavenworth did not have clergy in residence on post. Instead, religious services were offered by clergy members that were either traveling through the area or working with local native populations.It was not until Congress passed an act in 1838 to reorganize the Army and authorized the appointment of clergyman to serve as chaplains on military forts. The role of the post chaplain included performing religious services as well as schoolmaster. Reverend Henry Gregory of the Protestant Episcopal Church served as the first permanent chaplain at Fort Leavenworth from 17 December 1838 to 26 September 1839.
Fort Leavenworth during the Mexican-American War
Expansion into the west began in America with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. President Thomas Jefferson authorized Captain Meriwether Lewis and Second Lieutenant William Clark to explore and map the newly acquired territory. Soon roads were created to link the east to the west. One such road was the Santa Fe Trail. Between 1821 and 1880, the Santa Fe Trail was primarily a commercial highway connecting Missouri and Santa Fe, New Mexico. The route was pioneered by Missouri trader William Becknell, who left Franklin, Missouri in September 1821. Others before him had been arrested by Spanish soldiers once they neared Santa Fe, and most had been hauled south toward Mexico City to serve lengthy prison sentences. Becknell, however, was pleasantly surprised to find that Mexico had overthrown the Spanish yoke, and the new Mexican government – unlike their predecessors – welcomed outside trade. Not surprisingly, others got into the trade soon after Becknell returned, and by 1825 goods from Missouri were not only being traded in Santa Fe, but to other points farther south as well.From 1821 until 1846, the Santa Fe Trail was a two-way national commercial highway used by both Mexican and American traders. However these trails were not without dangers. Conflicts with Native populations and bandits led to the Government to push the Army to established posts on the trails. This is where the story of Fort Leavenworth begins.
Fort Leavenworth Girl Scouts
Girl Scouts began March 12, 1912, with founder Juliette Low, organizing the first troop of girls in Savannah, Georgia. Created to give girls of all ages to grow mentally, emotionally, and physically, the Girl Scouts teaches leadership skills while giving them opportunities to grow and learn. While having fun and bonding, the girls become involved with their communities through volunteer work and engaging with different groups in their area. Popular Girl Scout activities include: camping, volunteer work, fire safety, first aide, outdoor survival skills, and other enriching activities.
Fort Leavenworth Holidays
Before the Civil War, Christmas was not an official holiday in the United States and was not celebrated uniformly across the nation. By the mid-19th century, the holiday’s importance began to grow. After the Civil War ended, popular magazines and newspapers promoted Christmas to highlight the importance of family unity and remembering those lost. In 1870, Congress passed the first federal holiday law and made Christmas an official holiday.Posts where soldier’s families were present, such as Fort Leavenworth, were usually guaranteed a festive celebration as wives and children made a special effort to spread cheer during the holiday season. Special activities on post would include skating parties, a visit from Santa Claus, sleigh rides, dances, and concerts.At Fort Leavenworth in 1885, the post chapel was the site of a Christmas Eve celebration for the children on post. The walls of the chapel were decorated with evergreens and mistletoe and a large, decorated Christmas tree sat on a platform near the altar. A total of 254 children attended and each one received an orange, a box of candy, and a small present.Today Fort Leavenworth continues celebrating the holiday season each year with a tree lighting ceremony complete with music, carriage rides, singing school choir, and a visit from Santa Claus.
Fort Leavenworth Hospitals
In Fort Leavenworth's history there have been 5 hospitals. 1st hospital – Plan of Cantonment Leavenworth, 1828 describes the hospital as “Two story building 64 by 36 feet; hall at either end, 12 feet wide; four rooms each 20 by 18 feet; piazza in front 8 feet wide; cellar kitchens.” Structure was located at junction of Kearny and McClellan Avenues.
Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery
Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery reflects the fort’s changing role in our nation’s history. The ravages of malaria and other diseases among the first soldiers assigned to Cantonment Leavenworth necessitated the creation of a burying ground as early as 1827. Due to military tradition at the time, two cemeteries were originally established on the fort grounds: one for enlisted soldiers was located near the present site of the Commanding General’s quarters; the other was reserved exclusively for officers and was located near what is now the Combined Arms Research Library.In 1858, the remains from both post cemeteries were re-interred into a single site on the military reservation. When Congress approved the creation of national cemeteries in 1862, the Fort Leavenworth cemetery became one of 14 national cemeteries to be designated or established as such that year. Of the original 14 national cemeteries, Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery was the largest and contained 36.10 acres.The oldest known burial at Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery is that of Clarinda Dale who died Sept. 21, 1844. She was originally interred in the old Fort Leavenworth Arsenal Cemetery. The oldest known military grave is that of Captain James Allen, 1st U.S. Dragoons, who died in August 1846. Like Miss Dale, Capt. Allen was originally buried in Fort Leavenworth Arsenal Cemetery and later moved to the national cemetery. In 1886, soldiers originally buried at Fort Craig, New Mexico, were re-interred at Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery to facilitate completion of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad. Following the close of the Indian Wars and resettlement of Native Americans, the Army closed or consolidated many of its small military outposts in the West. As a result, between 1885 and 1907, the federal government vacated numerous military post cemeteries and re-interred nearly 2,000 remains at Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery.The Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery is home to a few notable internments including Captain Thomas W. Custer, brother of George Armstrong Custer, killed at Little Bighorn. Brevet Major General Edward Hatch, first commander of the 9th U.S. Cavalry Regiment, an all African American regiment more popularly known as the Buffalo Soldiers. And the namesake of the post Colonel Henry Leavenworth, himself.Content sourced from: Fort Leavenworth National Cemetery - National Cemetery Administration (va.gov)
Fort Leavenworth Stables
Humans and horses have always had a special bond. Many believe that the horse has changed our culture more than any other domesticated animal. They played a vital role in westward expansion and were an essential element of the United States Army.Horses required stables for proper care and maintenance. The earliest stables on Fort Leavenworth are shown in a map to the left. Ten log stables for 1st Dragoon mounts were located on the south side of Main Parade with an additional small staff stable in the southeast corner. Companies’ of the 1st Dragoons occupied Fort Leavenworth beginning in 1834. They made extended expeditions to aid in the resettlement of Indians proving later to be valuable training for officers during the Civil War.Mr. E. T. Carr directed the construction of ten frame stables on the north end of McClellan in 1855 known as “The Old Cavalry Stables”. Fire destroyed many stables on Fort Leavenworth to include these in 1873, later replaced with the present brick stables beginning in 1893.Riding halls and stables were key buildings on post, usually located near designated soldier’s barracks and close to pastures and drill areas. Soldiers disciplined the military horse to the many sounds and practices of war to include weapons, equipment, drums, and bugle calls. A major offensive tactic was the horse cavalry charge where the mounted soldier had a distinct advantage over the footed warrior. The last one taking place in 1942 against the Japanese in the Philippines.
From the Vault: Cheyenne Indian Drawings
These pencil drawings are part of the collection of original Cheyenne Indian Drawings made for Captain Bethel Moore Custer in 1881. The artist is unknown, but the drawings are typical work of the Cheyenne and were made for Army officers, Indian Bureau personnel, and other stationed in the West during the Indian Wars.The only clearly recognizable name appearing in the drawings is Tall Bull who was the famous leader of the Cheyenne Dog Soldiers which figured prominently in the Indians Wars of the 1860s. Tall Bull was killed at the Battle of Summit Springs, near Sterling, Colorado, in July of 1869. No known photographs of Tall Bull exist.
From the Vault: COL Wagner Painting
Painted by Charles Harold L. MacDonald in 1908 after the death and subsequent promotion of the Colonel to Brigadier General in 1905, the portrait of Colonel Wagner though largely typical for the time, remains distinguished. Born in 1861 in Wisconsin, Charles Harold L. MacDonald would study in Paris before becoming part of the close-knit Washington art scene. Regarding his larger body of work, MacDonald was a portraitist, and well known throughout Washington D.C. With figures such as Simon Newcomb among those sitting for his portraits, he was regarded “for sheer painterly dexterity and profundity of characterization.” Indicative of the times, MacDonald’s portrait stands out among the few portraits displayed in the Frontier Army Museum. Aside from the large size of MacDonald’s work, comparing the portrait of Colonel Wagner to the portraits of Colonel Henry Leavenworth and his wife Harriet Lovejoy Leavenworth by George Catlin and John Wesley Jarvis respectively highlights the strengths of all artists involved. Where the portraits of Lovejoy and Colonel Leavenworth both feature incredibly fine brush work, and smooth, pale tones, Tim Miller, writing for askart.com, notes MacDonald’s “strong studies in character, solidly structured, with well-controlled tonal ranges and vigorous brushwork,” all traits notable in his portrait of Colonel Wagner. Featuring distinctly visible brush strokes in the rendering of the hair and beard, concerned with capturing the details of the folds of his jacket, and exemplifying the natural lighting, the portrait of the Colonel is indicative of MacDonald’s work, and stands out among the works possessed by the Frontier Army Museum.At 39 and a half inches across and 51 and one quarter inches tall, the large oil painting depicts the Colonel seated, clutching a handkerchief in his right hand and looking off to the right, sitting in front of a tent. As a whole, the work aims to resemble photography or the American Realism movement, showing a more believable, contemporary scene of the Colonel, as opposed to the portraits that precede it in the museum’s collection, whose smooth, pale, finely detailed images contrast with the visible, vigorous brushwork of the Colonel’s. Though these differences could be in part caused by the nature of the portrait. Where the portraits by Catlin and Jarvis had living sitters for their subjects, MacDonald had no such luxury, and would have had to recreate the Colonel’s likeness from photographic reference, or from memory, had he met the man personally. The portrait itself is framed with the smooth, lighter backdrop of the tent behind the Colonel, highlighting his head and guiding the eye towards the pins that decorate his chest. His jacket folds heavily and naturally as he sits, oddly the right button on his breast pocket is either missing or undone. Visually, there is a slight bias towards the left side of the painting, the Colonel’s arm sits further out from his body, in the same direction he is looking towards, almost as if he were ready and raring to get to action. MacDonald strongly portrays Colonel Wagner, sitting tall and proud, with a knowing look to him, accentuated by the figure’s glasses and serene look, that honors and displays the intelligence and the leadership of an accomplished man, befitting of the rank awarded to him.
From the Vault: United Spanish-American War Veterans Medal
Veteran’s Day traces its roots back to Armistice Day when on 11 November 1918, on the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month a temporary truce to stop fighting or “armistice” was declared between the Allied Nations and Germany during World War I. Armistice comes from the Latin sistere meaning “to cause to stand or stop”, combined with arma meaning “weapons”. Together it means a cessation of arms.Although the Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, the date of 11 November 1918 became cemented in the public minds as the date that marked the end of “the Great War”. One year later, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed 11 November as the first commemoration of Armistice Day which included parades and public gatherings. An act of Congress on 13 May 1938 made “Armistice Day” a legal Federal holiday.In 1954, veterans’ service organizations lobbied congress to amend the 1938 act that created Armistice Day as a holiday. They requested replacing the word “Armistice” with “Veterans”. On 1 June 1954 President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the change into law. Ever since 11 November 1954 has been known as “Veterans Day” and honors American veterans who served during war and peacetime.
Frontier Flight - Early Aviation at Fort Leavenworth
This exhibit introduces the history of military aviation and how it began with the Army. The exhibit shows the importance of balloons, dirigibles, and the air plane in early military aviation. The exhibit also highlights early aviation efforts at Fort Leavenworth. With an air field founded in 1912 (before Sherman Army Air Field), air planes and hangars, and famous aviators making their way to post, Fort Leavenworth was predicted to be a large aeronautical center. Unfortunately aviation plans fell through. This exhibit helps reveals the mostly untold story of early aviation at Fort Leavenworth.
History of Newspapers at Fort Leavenworth
The letter below was written by John Whaley of Company M 2nd Artillery in 1839. He wrote to his grandparents while stationed at Fort Leavenworth. The letter includes news about the post, local Native American Tribes, and his health.
Medical Treatments on the Lewis and Clark Expedition
The journey of the Corps of Discovery covered nearly 8,000 acres of unknown perils and landscapes. Surprisingly, none of the members on the mission included a trained doctor. President Jerfferson was weary of colonial medicine and believed that it was based on theory rather than hard science. This distrust of physicians led Jefferson to appoint Meriwether Lewis as the primary medical physician of the Corps.Lewis had prior medical knowledge from his mother, Lucy, who was a noted herbalist. Jefferson required Lewis to receive supplementary medical training from Benjamin Rush, America’s premiere physician. Lewis learned typical medical theory and practice. One of his major duties on the mission included the health and care of his soldiers.Some of medicines and medical equipment Lewis brought on the journey included: Rush’s Pills: Created by Benjamin Rush, these were used as a “cure-all” and were liberally given. They were also known as “Thunder-clappers” for the laxative’s sudden effects. Lancets - to make punctures Forceps - to grasp small objects Syringes - to dispense medicines Laudanum - used to temporary alleviate coughing, diarrhea and pain Cream Of Tartar - a mild laxative Elixir Of Vitriol - typically mixed with other ingredients such as ginger, it was used as a tonic for stomach disorders Magnesia - antacid Mercury - the standard treatment of the time for syphilisFor a full list of medicines ordered for the journey, please visit: http://www.lewis-clark.org/article/2562
The Mormon Battalion at Fort Leavenworth
Fort Leavenworth played a significant role in the Mexican-American War (April 25, 1846-February 2, 1848.) Colonel Stephen W. Kearny, the commanding officer of the Army in the Great Plains region, stationed his headquarters at Fort Leavenworth where many soldiers deployed. In addition to Col. Kearney’s HQ, Fort Leavenworth also served as an induction center. One of the more well-known volunteer forces, the Mormon Battalion, inducted through post.[1]In June 1846, after receiving orders from President James K. Polk, Col. Kearny sent Captain James Allen to Iowa Territory to recruit a battalion of Mormon men. The Mormons, who are officially known as members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, were travelling west after persecution and mob violence had made it impossible for them to stay in Nauvoo, Illinois. Members of the Church faced persecution from the beginning of the religion in 1830. The persecutions were due mainly to the Church’s belief in a new book of scripture, The Book of Mormon, as well as peculiar doctrines. A mob murdered the Church’s founder, Joseph Smith, Jr., in Carthage, Illinois in 1844. This prompted the westward emigration of the main body of the Church.Early in 1846 the leader of the Church, Brigham Young, assigned Jesse C. Little to petition the United States government for help with the emigration. After corresponding with government officials and then directly with President James K. Polk, Little received word in June that the government intended to enlist a few hundred Saints into the Army. Capt. Allen did just that, mustering more than 500 Mormon men into the battalion. Thirty-five women joined the battalion, many of whom served as laundresses, along with over 40 children.[2][1] https://home.army.mil/leavenworth/application/files/4614/9755/6852/PAO-Mormon-Battalion-Brochure.pdf[2] https://history.churchofjesuschrist.org/content/historic-sites/journey-of-the-mormon-battalion?lang=eng
Nez Perce at Fort Leavenworth
The Nez Perce tribe are member so the Sahaptin language group, a two-language branch of the Plateau Penutian family spoken by Native American peoples in the Columbia Plateau region of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho in the northwestern United States. They were the dominant tribe in the Pacific Northwest. They bred appaloosa horses in the 18th century.The tribe call themselves Nimi’ipuu (pronounced [nimiːpuː]), meaning, "The People". However, they are more commonly referred to as Nez Perce, French of r “Pierced Nose”. This name comes from the French mistaken individuals whom they saw wearing nose pendants as members of the Nimi’ipuu, though the Nimi’ipuu do not pierce their noses.The Nez Perce were friendly to white settlers during the half of the 19th century. As white settles advanced on their land beginning in 1850s, the US forced the tribe to surrender their lands and to resettle on small and unattractive reservations. This went against lands negotiation agreement from 1855 and 1863. In 1877 the US attempted to relocate dissenting Nez Perce to Idaho. Chief Joseph reluctantly agreed. However, during preparation, a band of white settlers were killed. Fearing retaliation, Chief Joseph led a small bod of followers on a trek to Canada.From June-September 1877, Chief Joseph led his followers across Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Montana trying to outrun and maneuver the US Army. The Nez Perce were finally surrounded in Montana, 40 miles from the Canadian border. On 5 October Chief Joseph surrendered to GEN Nelson A. Miles. During his speech he remarked"Hear me, my chiefs; my heart is sick and sad. From where the Sun now stands, I will fight no more forever."
Nike-Hercules Missile Defense Area - Fort Leavenworth
During the 1950s, atomic weapons carried on Soviet bombers were considered a primary threat to the US as well as the Suez Crisis (1956) and Arab-Israeli conflicts. The defense against this potential attack was the Army's Nike surface-to-air missile system. In 1958, four sites around the Kansas City area were selected to be launchers for the Nike-Hercules anti-aircraft missiles, including Fort Leavenworth. The missiles were seen as a “deterrent” to international attack.The Nike could intercept all known aircraft and missiles at the time. Completion of the project took 14 months. The Nike-Hercules missile, a surface-to-air missile, had an effective range of 75 miles and could hit targets up to 150,000 feet. It carried a nuclear weapon that could destroy entire formation of bombers or an incoming missile without a direct hit.The missiles were in operation from 1960-1969. The Command-and-Control site for the Nike system was in Olathe. At the command site, radar information was relayed from throughout the country to the command site and prioritized targets in the event of an attack.Site KC-80 was the home of Battery D, 5th Missile Battalion, 55th Artillery. The battery complex occupied several locations around Fort Leavenworth — a headquarters and administration area, an integrated fire control and radar site, a magazine and launch facility and an assembly and maintenance building.Today there are no traces of the inner and outer fences that guarded the missile launch area. However, its underground missile storage units are still intact, underneath the current recreational vehicle park. All weapons have been disarmed and removed from property.Sources: Kansas City: Nike-Hercules Missile Defense AreaLamp Article
Pioneer HERStory: Vignettes of Pioneering Women of the American West
Strangers in a strange land - what will the future be?Sally Hester, diary entry of October 6, 1849, Vernon, CATo refer to women as the fairer sex is to diminish their role in society and history. Women took active roles in America's westward expansion. Pioneering was an equalizer; everyone participated in tasks that may have traditionally been performed by the opposite sex. One had to be tough, mentally and physically, to not just survive but to thrive.
Reception Center at Fort Leavenworth
The outbreak of World War II brought increased activity to Fort Leavenworth. On August 9, 1940, Reception Center No. 1773 became active, and building construction began. Its original capacity was to be 500 but grew to 2,000 in less than one year making it one of the largest Reception Centers in the Seventh Corp area. From 1940 through 1946, the post served as a War Department Personnel Center for 318,000 draft inductees. These men processed through the Reception Center before transferring to other posts. This center was also responsible for discharging 147,000 men. The area that made up the Reception Center consisted of three separate areas. One area known as the West Annex was just south of the National Cemetery. Another area just west of Grant Avenue and the third area or East Annex was east of Grant Avenue and north of Warehouse 341. Warehouse 341 is the only remaining building from the Reception Center.
Sherman Army Airfield - Fort Leavenworth
Sherman Army Airfield was first developed as an emergency grass landing strip in 1923. Three cinder runways and a hangar were constructed by 1930 to accommodate student pilots and instructors attending the Command and General Staff School using it for maintaining flight efficiency. An Air Corps Detachment managed the field and later became the Third Staff Squadron in 1937. World War II saw Sherman Field used primarily for training. In the summer of 1942, 450 Netherlands East Indies cadets came here for training in basic flying by the 671st School Squadron. By 1944, the airfield had only 25 planes, most were trainers, and none of these models saw combat. With the arrival of pilots sent to the College, the need for more modern planes became essential. Over 60 aircraft to include P-40s and P-51s arrived near the end of the war.Located on the north side of Fort Leavenworth on the Missouri River flood plain, the airfield endured major flood damage at various times through the years. Sherman Army Airfield continues to be utilized for military VIPs and Leavenworth civilian traffic.
Soldiers At Play: All work and no play…
Ten minutes before sunrise - Reveille Immediately after reveille - Stable Call 0600 - Sick Call 06:00 - Water Call 0630. - Breakfast Call 0700 - Fatigue Call. 0800 - Guard Mounting 1200 - Duty Recall 1200 - Dinner Call 1300 - Fatigue Call 1730 - Stable Call SUNSET - Retreat 2000 - Tattoo (lights out) 2030 - Taps
Spanish-American War
On April 21, 1898, the United States declared war against Spain. This battle would be the first overseas conflict for the United States. There were two immediate motives for war. First, the American public strongly supported the Cuban and Filipino struggle for independence. Second, on February 15, 1898, the U.S.S. Maine mysteriously exploded in Havana harbor, killing 260 aboard.The Army sailed troops from Tampa and landed in Cuba on 22 June with plans to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba. To reach Santiago, on July 1 U.S. troops fought through Spanish defenses in the San Juan Hills and the town of El Caney. Theodore Roosevelt and his “Rough Riders,” along with Buffalo Soldiers of the 9th and 10th Cavalry, led the charge up Kettle Hill in the San Juan Hills and won. This battle was a decisive win for the United States. The Army secured San Juan Hill and El Caney soon after. The Spanish surrendered on August 12, 1898.Spain and the U.S. signed the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. The treaty established the independence of Cuba and gave control of Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States. The U.S. purchased the Philippines Islands from Spain for $20 million. The First Philippine Republic opposed the terms of the Treaty of Paris which led to the Philippine Insurrection.
The Army’s Oldest and Deadliest Enemy: Disease
Since the founding of the United States Army in 1775, there has been one common enemy through every battle, every war. Disease. Before the twentieth century more soldiers perished due to disease than from battle wounds.
The U.S. Army in the National Parks
In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant established the First National Park at Yellowstone, Wyoming Territory. Unfortunately, no rules or laws for public use existed for the region at the time. Several appointed superintendents managed the parks in the early years. Unfortunately the small force was overwhelmed with problems including poaching, vandalism and forest fires. Overhunting became such an issue that the bison population became severely endangered. Congress stopped providing funds for civilian park management positions in August of 1886. That same month Captain Moses Harris led the United States Army soldiers from Troop M, 1st Cavalry, to Yellowstone. The soldiers carried out rules and regulations set forth by Captain Harris. Cavalry soldiers patrolled the vast area providing protection and allowing wildlife in the parks to thrive, including the once endangered bison.In August 1916, The Organic Act signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson established the National Park Service. Military protection of the parks ended in 1918, 32 years after the first troops arrived at Yellowstone. Many of the policies and procedures introduced by the Army are still in use today.
The United States Army Signal School at Fort Leavenworth
The first year of study for the officers of The United States Army Signal School at Fort Leavenworth was 1905-1906. Major George Squier, first assistant commandant, organized the course of study to include visual signaling, electrical and mechanical engineering, aeronautics, photography, topography and language. Each student was required to prepare a thesis on a relevant subject prior to graduation. (Annual Report, 1906)Signal School students made annual visits to Fort Omaha, Nebraska and St Joseph, Missouri for the purpose of balloon theory. There they learned practical instruction in inflation, flight, and packing of dirigibles and balloons. (Annual Report, 1912)Companies A and D, Signal Corps, assigned to Fort Leavenworth and on duty with the school, supported students with terrain exercises to demonstrate practical applications. By 1913, The Enlisted Men’s Signal School was established at Fort Leavenworth. (Annual Report, 1913)Due to World War I, all military schools were suspended in 1916. However, with the influx of signalmen for the war, Fort Leavenworth opened a Signal Corps Buzzer School in March 1918 continuing until January 1919. (Annual Report, 1918, 1919)
U.S. Camel Corps
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 not only ended the recent Mexican-American War. It also represented a massive land transfer from Mexico to the United States, which almost immediately presented the victorious country with a communication problem. This newly added territory, what is today the states of New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, Utah Nevada and California, contained vast swathes of desert that proved difficult for pack animals and horses to traverse. By the early 1850s, state and national legislators believed the camel could provide the best solution for civilian and military use in these new territories.The state legislature of California published a report in May 1855 that highlighted the usefulness of Dromedaries (one humped camels) for transportation purposes, but the true driving force behind the importation of camels in the 1850s was the Secretary of War Jefferson Davis. In March of 1855, after years of unsuccessful petitions to Congress, the War Department received approval and $30,000 for an expedition to purchase Dromedaries and Bactrian (two humped) camels in the Middle East and bring them back to the United States for the US Army to test the practical use of the camel. Jefferson Davis tasked Major Henry C. Wayne in May of 1855 with the task to purchase the camels and establish a suitable spot for experiments in Texas. Aboard the ship Supply, commanded by Lieutenant David D. Porter, the expedition made stops in Britain and Italy to inspect imported camels before sailing to Constantinople, several points along the coast of the Ottoman Empire and eventually Alexandria to procure “a desirable amount” of camels. On May 14, 1856, the Supply landed at Indianola Texas and disembarked the first camels, 32 Dromedary and Bactrian, on US soil. In June of that same year, the Supply undertook another expedition across the Atlantic to procure even more camels for the experiment.
United States Disciplinary Barracks
In 1871, Major Thomas F. Barr, Judge Advocate of the Department of the East, introduced a disciplinary reform to address the poor treatment of prisoners. This reform led to Congress approving a bill to construct a military prison selecting Fort Leavenworth as the site. Construction began in 1874 and was completed in 1921.Congress funded an expansion of the prison in 1908. The construction included a large development known as “the Castle,” which consisted of a central stack with cell blocks radiating outwards. The finished prison consisted of 1,200 cells, 4 cell houses, a dining room, a gymnasium, inmate radio station, offices, mail room, library, and death chamber.Throughout the years the prison has tried numerous vocational and educational programs. Some more successful than others. The first inception of professional training occurred in 1877 with inmates making shoes and boots for use by the Quartermaster Department. In 1880 the USDB established an educational system. All prisoners who could not read or write were required to attend. Additional training programs throughout the years have included auto repair, barbering, blacksmithing, carpentry, soap-making, bee-keeping, cattle raising, plumbing, and more. The Castle officially closed in 2003. A new USDB facility opened north of the original location a year prior. The updated, state of the art facility holds up to 515 inmates. Members of the 15th Military Police Brigade staff the prison.
U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command: 50 Years of Developing Army Leaders
TRADOC mission statement:U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command develops, educates and trains Soldiers, civilians, and leaders; supports unit training; and builds and integrates a versatile mix of capabilities, formations, and equipment to strengthen the U.S. Army as America's Force of Decisive Action.
Winter at the Barracks
To help protect and provide provisions for travelers heading west on the Great Plains, the Army constructed several forts along the overland trails many in remote areas far from any town or settlement. The soldiers stationed at these forts, were required to also build them in addition to military roads and their own shelters. Because they were so isolated Frontier posts were almost solely dependent upon supplies brought from a great distance. The Army relied on steamboats, mule trains, and railroads, to deliver most of their supplies and usually at a great cost. In the winter, these much needed supplies often did not make it to the posts. Boats could not get through on frozen rivers, and railcars and mule trains could not travel through snow or ice. In the winter soldiers had to make do with what they had which meant a shortage of food supply. The mills consisted of foods that could be easily be stored and prepared at the post and normally was the only source of food until the spring. Rations available to the soldiers generally consisted of salt beef, salt pork or bacon, hard tack biscuits, bread, and baked beans. Depending upon the area, soldiers could supplement their diet with wild game. Because of their poor diets many soldiers died of scurvy, a disease caused by lack of vitamin C. Scurvy was considered as the leading cause of death amongst soldiers during the winter and in some months listed as the only cause of death. Soldiers also had to do what they could to prevent frostbite and hypothermia. Their shelters were usually crudely built, using materials that were to be found in the countryside. They were made of log, stone, adobe, or sod and were constructed by the soldier’s own labor. Whatever the building style, soldiers spent long hours chinking between the logs with mud and mortar to keep out cold drafts and to conserve heat. The interior walls of the cabins supported bunks and furniture made from whatever materials the men managed to gather. Bunks were constructed of boxes, crates, and hay or leaves for sleeping surface. When soldiers went to bed for the night they often stayed completely dressed in uniform to keep warm. Although the Quartermaster Department supplied barracks with stoves, posts sometimes had to find their own fuel for heat. In some cases the army contracted with local civilians to supply them with wood for fuel but usually the soldiers had to go out and find, cut, and haul timber themselves.
Women, Peace, and Security is…
UNSCR Resolution 1325: unanimously adopted on October 31, 2000 “Reaffirming the important role of women in the prevention and resolution of conflicts and in peace-building, and stressing the importance of their equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security, and the need to increase their role in decision-making with regard to conflict prevention and resolution,..”US Public Law: signed into law on October 6, 2017. The Women, Peace, and Security Act of 2017 (Public Law 115-68), was the first legislation of its kind globally.A DOD Responsibility: The DoD Women, Peace, and Security Strategic Framework and Implementation Plan (SFIP). details the Department’s roles and responsibilities for implementing the WPS Strategy, establishes WPS Defense Objectives, and aims to organize and align the Department’s implementation of the WPS Strategy within the National Security Strategy (NSS) and the National Defense Strategy (NDS).National Action Plan by Region – 1325 National Action Plans (peacewomen.org)
Preventative Conservation of Military Artifacts at the Frontier Army Museum
Link: Preventative Conservation of Military Artifacts at the Frontier Army Museum“We have nothing that is really our own; we hold everything as a loan.”- Nicolas PoussinThis statement rings true for all things in life and as a Museum Specialist at the Frontier Army Museum; I see this first hand. As part of the Army Museum Enterprise (AME) my roles and responsibilities range from creating and designing exhibits, teaching soldiers and Department of Defense civilians, creating public education programming, and caring for the museum’s collection. The Frontier Army Museum holds almost 6,500 objects in the public trust. These objects represent the story of the United States Army on the frontier from the Corps of Discovery Expedition of Captain Meriwether Lewis & Second Lieutenant William Clark (1804) through the Pancho Villa Expedition (1917). The museum also holds artifacts related to the history of Fort Leavenworth from its establishment in 1827 to modern day.One of the core staff duties at the museum is to care and account for the artifacts in the collection. When I say care, I specifically mean a term we use in the museum field called “preventative conservation”. This consists of taking measures that prevent damage or reduces the potential for damage. Critical elements in preventive conservation include handling, storage, and management of collections.(1)Most of the time damages occur to objects when improperly handled. One of the first rules in handling artifacts is to always wear gloves. Gloves are important because they protect both the artifact and the handler. Human skin is naturally covered in oils, dirt, salts, and moisture that causes etching, staining, and abrasions to artifact surfaces. Additionally, the artifact may be composed of or treated with toxic materials, so gloves protect the wearer as well. There are two acceptable types of gloves in the field, cotton and nitrile. Cotton gloves can be used for delicate items such as books and paper.(2) However, cotton gloves have fallen out of favor do to several issues including snagging on documents, loss of tactile feeling, and the fact they are absorbent and collect oils inside and outside of the glove. For the vast majority of paper-based materials, clean dry hands are used while handling those media types. Nitrile gloves are preferred while handling all material types because it provides protection against dirt and oil from human hands and gives the wearer a more dexterous grip. Picking up and moving artifacts is another aspect that must be done carefully and mindfully. Ideally, not handling an artifact is best, but sometimes a situation calls for it. When handling an object, staff consider what they are handling and the best method to move it. In general, lifting an artifact from the base with two hands supporting is best practice. We must also consider if the artifact has multiple parts or has had previous repairs that may have weakened the artifacts structure. Moving artifacts should also be carefully planned with a destination prepared to receive the artifact. Long distance movements usually requires the use of equipment such as trays or carts.Another consideration for museum professionals in terms of object care is long-term storage. Currently at the Frontier Army Museum, only 6% of the collection is on display which calculates to approximately 6,114 objects in long-term storage. Although this seems like a low percentage, it is actually the norm for many museums. Lack of physical space is one reason for displaying a low number of artifacts. Another reason is to protect artifacts. Certain artifacts types should be rotated off display frequently. For example, rare or fragile textiles should only be on exhibit for a period of 3-6 months.(3) This assists in prevention of future issues and damages caused by exposure to various elements such as temperature changes and light.How an object is stored is something museum professionals must consider. For many textiles, flat storage is best as it limits stress points versus hanging or rolling. The Frontier Army Museum’s storage area is fortunate to be able to accommodate flat storage for most of its textile and uniform collections. In addition to storing textiles flat, military coats and other similar garments have custom inserts placed inside the body cavity. The inserts consist of Tyvek filled with polyester batting. The insert serves to keep the garment inflated and prevents the textile from folding on itself. The arms are filled with another Tyvek insert or with rolled acid-free tissue paper. A polyester film is placed between metal components and the fabric surface to act as a barrier. This will protect the fabric from any metal corrosion from transferring onto the fabric. Perhaps the most important aspect of preventative conservation is the physical environment, which houses the collection and exhibits. Today the Frontier Army Museum is located in what was known as Andrews Hall, Bldg 801. Constructed in 1941, Andrews Hall was modeled after a large temporary recreation building. After completion in 1942, the building was soon converted for classroom space to accommodate the increased student load at the Command and General Staff School during World War II. Academic use of the building continued until 1959, when the college was moved into the newly built J. Franklin Bell Hall. That same year the museum moved into Andrews Hall and is currently there today. Over the years, the building has been retrofitted to properly display and house the collection in order to maintain an overall physical environment in accordance with guidelines for temperature, light, and relative humidity. Environmental variables such as relative humidity (RH), temperature, light exposure, pests, and air pollution can harm artifacts if not monitored. Changes in relative humidity and temperature can have detrimental effects by causing thermal and moisture content expansion and contraction of materials. High temperatures promote faster chemical reactions and degrades organic material quickly. High temperatures also lead to loss of flexibility and cracking due to accelerated dehydration. On the other hand, extreme cold can cause brittleness and cracks. High relative humidity can cause a variety of problems, like mold growth on organic collection materials like paper, leather, textiles, and wooden artifacts. Irregular or fluctuating relative humidity is damaging on a microscopic level while the porous fibers of plant and animal based artifacts shrink and swell as they increase and decrease their moisture content. Prolonged cycling of shrinking and swelling weakens fibers over time resulting in bond cleavage and ultimately a weakened substrate and tears or breaks.(4) Many museums have artifacts that are considered mixed media, which means they are made up of various different materials such as leather and metal. Various materials components react differently based on various levels of RH and temperature. Artifacts with metal components benefit from lower RH levels while organic materials benefit from more moderate RH. In a mixed media collection, such as at the Frontier Army Museum, the recommendation is to have RH levels at 50% while minimizing huge swings to between 40-60% (4). Fluctuating RH is one of the most damaging aspects of the environment and is a key element that museums work to control through management and maintenance of the facilities heating, ventilation, and air condition system (HVAC).In order to combat the changes in the environment, we utilize various environmental control strategies. At the Frontier Army Museum we control the ambient air temperature and pollution within the building in both the exhibit galleries and collection storage. The collection storage runs on its own HVAC system that has backup in case of power outages. The dedicated HVAC in collection storage allows staff to keep the temperature around 65-70°F and 45-50% RH. In the exhibits area, guest comfort is considered and the range is set between 65-72° and 50% humidity.To alleviate air pollution, the museum HVAC is equipped with a filtration system that cleans the air of impurities. Microscopic dust and debris can settle on artifacts and cause damage. HEPA filters helps to limit corrosive dust and debris from settling onto the artifacts. Within collections storage, the cabinets have door seals and vents to help regulate the airflow. In certain cabinets, silica gel is placed inside trays to help absorb excess moisture.Hygrothermographs regularly monitor the relative humidity and temperature within the galleries and collection storage. This allows staff to record and notice any major changes in the environment and act accordingly such as removing an object from exhibit or getting the HVAC system repaired. Light exposure can also cause damage to artifacts. Some materials, especially photographs, books, and paper, are highly susceptible to damage from light. The amount of damage occurs from light wavelength intensity, exposure time, and the material’s natural resistance. Light damage can cause fading, weakening, discoloration, and brittleness.(5) The museum mitigates light damage by monitoring light exposure, utilizing film filters, installing Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), adjusting light levels to conservation levels, and placing facsimiles on exhibit when appropriate. Light meters are a tool that reads light intensity in units known as “lux” or footcandles. One footcandle is equal to 10 lux units.(6)Lux level chart – Philadelphia Museum of Art200 lux ( 20 footcandles) - most ceramics, glass, and metals150-200 lux (15-20 footcandles) - oil and tempera paintings, undyed leather, lacquer, wood, horn, bone, ivory, stone50 lux (5 footcandles) or less - watercolor paintings, dyes, manuscripts, prints and drawings, vulnerable textiles, photographAnother important, but usually overlooked aspect of collection care is integrated pest management (IPM). Insects, mice, snakes, and other critters tend to find their way into the museum. Most of the time pests do not pose a risk to artifacts. However, there are some they can cause a lot of damage. The “dirty dozen” as they are known in the museum field, consists of specific pests that are known to cause damage to artifacts. Mice, carpet beetles, booklouse, and webbing cloth moths are just a few of the pests that staff is always monitoring. How can these tiny pests cause harm? Very easily. Silverfish, for example, are very tiny wingless, carrot shaped insects that are only 10-15mm in length. What they lack in size the make for in appetite. These omnivores eat cellulose and protein materials. They tend to eat paper items, especially bookbinding because of the glue. Silverfish will also eat materials that have been treated with organic dyes, gelatin, or starch, which can include textiles like silk and cotton. They thrive in cool, damp environments so a presence of one indicates a moisture issue.(7) Controlling relative humidity is an important step in deterring pests. The museum works closely with the post’s entomology department to conduct quarterly exterior treatments of the building, monitor pests, and reaction to current infestations.Even with precautions, pest infestation can occur. Evidence of infestation includes insect excrement known as frass, webbing, larvae skins, and cases. Potentially infested artifacts are bagged in polyethylene bags and placed in isolation for several weeks. This allows staff to monitor for active infestation and place treatment accordingly. Depending on the artifact, there are different treatment methods. Freezing is one method that includes sealing an artifact in a container or bag and placing in a freezer capable of minus 20°F for at least 72 hours. This method is not recommended for paintings and Audio Visual (AV) materials.(8)On the less fabulous side of museum work, is the very important component of emergency planning. Although you never want anything to go wrong, you must be prepared. The museum has to be prepared for any type of large or small emergency. Whether it is a fire or a leaky pipe, the staff must be ready to take action. In preparation for emergency events, staff created an emergency preparedness plan that lays out how to respond to emergencies and recover artifacts. Physical preparations include emergency response boxes that contain materials needed to aid in an emergency. The boxes include flashlights, batteries, nitrile gloves, pencils, aprons, sponges, goggles, tarps, and trash bags. These items are useful during an emergency and recovery operation.
Online Collection Images
View the artifacts and their background information in our collection by visiting our digital library. Click the link below.Frontier Army Museum Digital Library
