Story 1 - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
Middelburg is a city with a rich history. Part of this history is shown in this app: places that remind us of the transatlantic slave trade that Zeeland was involved in. For example, warehouses of the Dutch West India Company (WIC), locations used by the Middelburg Commerce Company (MCC), or the house of reverend Smytegelt who preached against slave trade. In 2014 it is the 200th anniversary of the Dutch abolishment of slave trade. Connected to the slave trade, was the trade in sugar and cocoa. The image above is an advert for the selling of sugar in Middelburg, announced as ‘een goede Parthy suyker’ (A good stack of sugar), coming from plantations in the West.Walk along and see for yourself how well the city has preserved its own history.Advice: before you start walking, read the introduction about the role of Middelburg in the trade of cocoa, sugar and slaves. You can find it at: www.amnesty.nl/rightswalkmiddelburgTip!Download the app at home, or someplace where there is Wi-Fi. The walking tour ‘Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves’ is initiated by the municipality of Middelburg, the Library of Zeeland (Zeeuwse Bibliotheek), the Zeeland Archives (Zeeuws Archief) and Amnesty International, and is developed by 7scenes.Text: Johan Francke and Peter Sijnke, translation: Inge Zwart.The images used are property of the Zeeuwse Bibliotheek (Library of Zeeland), het Zeeuws Archief (the Zeeland Archives) and the Koninklijk Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetenschappen.
1: Hofplein - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
In 1765 this city palace was built by Johan Adriaen van de Perre. Currently, the building is known as the Van de Perre House. Mister van de Perre was married with Jacoba van den Brande, a wealthy woman. The architects came from Antwerp: Jan Peter van Baurscheit jr. and Engelbertus Baets. At the end of the 18th Century the regent family Schorer from Middelburg bought the building. Later, from 1838 till 1994, it was used as a courthouse. In 2000, after the building was renovated and a new, very modern, glass extension was added, the Zeeland Archives were moved into the former palace. The history of Zeeland is kept in the underground storage, several kilometers of archives are housed there. One of the archives is that of the Middelburg Commerce Company (MCC). This large archive is registered on the World Heritage list of UNESCO, because it is the only archive of a slave trading company that is almost completely intact. In 2014, the MCC archive is digitized as part of the national project Metamorfoze.Slave traders from Flushing have shipped about 96.047 slaves, those from Middelburg around 60.197. All together the Zeelanders have shipped approximately 270.000 slaves. This is almost half of all the slaves that have been traded by the Dutch in the 17th and 18th Century. It was not just the slave trade itself that brought great prosperity to Zeeland. The transatlantic system that the slave trade was part of had more profitable elements: the equipment of ships, selling goods in Africa, selling slaves in the Americas, production profit from the plantations and the selling of these products.
2: Korte Noordstraat 16 - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
The building located at Korte Noordstraat 16 was used as a cocoa mill from the 18th till the end of the 19th Century. Chocolate used to be wrapped in paper on which the quality was shown by means of a specific amount of letters. The code AAAAA represented the highest quality; most factories had chocolate with the rating of AAA. Currently a butcher is located there, but the same building used to be the chocolate factory of Fak Brouwer. Because the WIC of Middelburg was so successful in trading with the West there was a very extensive trade in cocoa as well, this made that more factories for chocolate opened in the city. The first in Middelburg was built by Jan Fak Brouwer, in 1703. The chocolate that was made at that time, was different from ours; the cocoa mass was basically sold pure and was famous because of a greasy and bitter taste.Where the cocoa mill used to be, there is now a butcher. This image from around 1900 shows what the building looked like when the mill was still in there.As this image from 1890 shows, across from the cocoa mill, there used to be barracks.
3: Reverend Smytegelt - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
This side of the water is called Penninghoeksingel, on the other side it is the Herengracht. The water is a remainder of the medieval moat around the innercity. Somewhere between the Lambrechtstraat and the St. Antheunisstraat a little bridge crossed the water, which was named after the reverend Smytegelt, who lived at the Herengracht in the 18th Century.Benardus Smytegelt (Goes August 20, 1665– Middelburg May 6, 1739) was a strict religious reverend who studied in Utrecht and was installed in Borsele on the 20th of May 1689. He preached on morality regarding current affairs and was not afraid to discuss the actions of the regents of the city. Because of this and his clear and direct way of speaking he was popular amongst the citizens of Middelburg.In the time of slave trade and privateering reverend Smytegelt also discussed these topics in his sermons. He thought that slavery was a great and horrible sin, for which people were sold, shipped and even killed.‘That type of thievery committed, is slave trade. He who steals a man, according to God, will definitely be killed. Isn’t it saddening that the Christians have made this the core of their trade?’Obviously, the rich merchants and regents of the city were not fond of the statements against them and preferred to listen to other reverends.There is a famous legend that two insulted regents wanted to kill Smytegelt. However, right at the moment they were about to commit the crime, they had to stop. Smytegelt was walking across the bridge after visiting a parishioner when the regents saw in a white light next to him two angels holding swords, which made the attackers stop. The reverend did not notice any of this and quietly walked home. Eventually, only when one of them was on his deathbed, he confessed to Smytegelt of their plans.
4: Privateer Credo - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
The white house with the big flagpole on number 68 is called Coning William, named after king-stadtholder Willem III of Orange. The house probably belonged to captain Willem Credo, a privateer, who originally came from Veere. He was a kind of living legend who sailed the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean to attack foreign vessels between 1688 and 1715. As a corsair he captured around 200 ships in the Nine Years War (1688-1697) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1713).Often, when there was no war going on, he was interlooping (‘lorrendraaien’): smuggling gunpowder, weapons and liquor to Africa, on which the WIC had a trade monopoly. He initiated at least one, and probably more, ‘illegal’ slave journeys from Angola to Saint Eustatius. The authorities – not just the Dutch ones- were frightened by him. The French fleet commander L’Aigle is said to have encountered him at sea, but out of respect, did not attack him. In reaction, Credo held a glass of wine out of his window to toast to him: ‘Monsieur L’Aigle! A Votre Santé!’Slavery has always existed and is still present in the world. In the 17th and 18th Century millions of Africans were forced to work on plantations in Central and South America. From Zeeland, many ships left to take part in the so-called triangle trade. Iron, liquor, weapons and textile were shipped to Africa. Here, these products were used to buy slaves who then were brought to the colonies. From there, products from the plantations were taken back to the Dutch Republic. The drawing comes from the book ‘Beschrijving der forte van de Guinese goudcust’ by H. Berg and shows fort Elmina in Ghana. This is one of the places where slaves were kept before they would be shipped to the West.
5: City Hall and market - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
Some people claim that the city hall of Middelburg is build with money gained from slave trade; but this is a wrong statement. Already in 1452 the construction of the building was initiated, a long time before the Dutch started to trade in slaves. It is clear though, that the regents of the city very often had stakes in companies like the WIC, MCC or other private organizations and because of their power they could support the realization of the plans of these companies. The construction of the city hall took a long time; the front was build between 1452 and 1458, the tower was finished in 1516. In the 18th Century an extension on the side of the Lange Noordstraat was added. In 1940, most of the building was destroyed, only the burned walls were still standing. Everything on the inside was completely lost, including the city archives and the municipal museum.When the Westmonsterkerk was demolished in 1575, the Market square was formed. Ever since the Middle Ages, weekly markets are held here.
6: Pottenmarkt - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
This is a picture postcard from 1899 with an image of the ‘Groote Markt met Stadhuis’. There were several other markets next to the one on the Market Square. Specific goods were traded on different locations; pottery on the Pottenmarkt, rope, seeds and flax on the Vlasmarkt, fish on the Vismarkt. There also were a Botermarkt, Beestenmarkt, and Varkensmarkt. Plein 1940 was build after the bombing on the 17th of May 1940.
7: Cacao Mill Kerspel - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar And Slaves
In 1723, the council of Middelburg allowed a cocoa mill to be built on the Karspelstraat, now called Kerspel. The production of cocoa in Middelburg was rising; in the same year three other companies built a mill: Van Haak, Vercruse & Berghen and Nobels & Bouke. The exact location of the mill on the Kerspel is not known. Actually, the whole street was ‘moved’ after the restructuring of the center of Middelburg after 1940. It used to be a street with many shops and companies, starting in the Gorstraat and ending at the Market Square.
8: Merchant Van de Putte - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar And Slaves
At the end of the harbor (kaai) that was made in 1540 is where the Nieuwe Haven is located. Somewhere near the Hoogstraat Hermanus van de Putte’s house De Witte Leew was located. This merchant built the (gun)powder mill de Grenadier in 1711. Before, from the 15th of July 1698 onwards, Van de Putte already owned the powder and oil factory Niemand zonder vijand (Nobody without an enemy) at the former Koopmanspad in Flushing. The unfortunate story about this mill is that it exploded on the 20th of March in 1701 with approximately 80.000 pounds of gunpowder. Obviously, this was a big disaster for the city of Flushing.Originally, the van de Putte family was particularly active in trading iron and metals. Hermanus van de Putte also traded his gunpowder in Africa. Next to this, he also was a winetrader, was involved with the WIC, VOC, MCC and privateering. In 1717 he became member of the city council of Middelburg and in 1721 he even became mayor of the city. He was a professional clerk of the court and a water clerk for the ‘polder administration’ (Vijf Ambachten op Walcheren). In 1657, he was born in Middelburg and later he married the wealthy Maria van den Brande. Their daughter married Asuerus Schorer in 1719.Alongside the house on the Nieuwe Haven, the family had property outside of the city centre; De Griffioen (Griffin) was their summerhouse, which still can be found at the Domburgse Watergang. Their garden had a vineyard in a greenhouse, a playhouse, and a gazebo. In 1696 he built a small teahouse, which is still preserved and located at the water behind the house.There is an obscure story about the Nieuwe Haven. Supposedly the house of a merchant and slave trader from Middelburg was located here. Under his house, linked to the basement, there would be secret underground tunnels that would end at the harbor. Whenever a slave ship anchored at night, he would secretly take slaves from the ships. Although it is a fascinating anecdote, it should, just like stories about the usage of chains to keep slaves in cellars, be considered a myth. The ships that left from Middelburg definitely carried slaves at certain points in their journey, however, with one exception in 1596 as can be read in the introduction, slaves never entered the city.
9: Library of Zeeland - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
The area behind the modern tribunal in Middelburg was used by the WIC to build a big warehouse complex in 1630. Goods from Africa and the West Indies were stored here. The buildings, of which some later were used by the MCC, were located right behind the city walls. In 1867 the whole complex was demolished in order to make room for the new channel through Walcheren.At the place where the Library of Zeeland is now located the Boddaert iron foundry was located before. One famous member of the Boddaert family was the mayor Pieter Boddaert. The family had a history of trading in iron. Iron was used to be welded into weapons in Africa or here to be traded for slaves.The Library stores more background information about the slave trade in books, articles, theses and hand handwritings. Even some original documents are saved here, like letters written by David Henri Gallandat, a doctor from the 18th century who wrote about the treatment of slaves on ships of the MCC.
10: Warehouse Den Eenhoorn - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
At Korendijk number 34 the former WIC warehouse Den Eenhoorn can be found. It is one of the few buildings that is still present from the former warehouse complex. As you can see, the date on the house says 1722. However, just as many other buildings throughout the city, it actually could be a bit older; because in the 18th century many new facades were constructed on which a new date was written, although the building behind it might be much older. This warehouse stored sugar, coffee, cocoa and other goods that were produced on the plantations in the West.
11: Warehouse De Hoop - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar And Slaves
When it turned out that the warehouse on the Balans in Middelburg was not big enough for the MCC, they built a new warehouse, called de Hoop. The son of MCC’s director Daniel Schorer, Johan Willem Schorer Danielszoon, laid the first brick of the building on the 23rd of September 1738. The location was very favorable for the company, since it was close to the harbor and the shipyard. The warehouse was used to store ivory and gold from Africa, as well as sugar and coffee from the West Indies.The warehouse complex of the WIC and the MCC is right next to the shipyard of the MCC. This fact resonates in the street names around this location. Next to de Hoop there is Oude Werfstraat (Old Warfstreet) and the street on the left side in front of the warehouse is called Dokstraat (Dockstreet). At the end of this street the shipyard of the MCC was located, later it was leveled to an open field with grass and now an apartment building is erected.
12: Shipyard - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
At the end of the Dokstraat ships were kept to sail in or out the lock located on the right of the shipyards of the WIC and VOC. The shipyard of the MCC, which is leveled now, was right in front of it. This painting of J. Arends gives an impression of what this shipyard might have looked like in 1778.The MCC bought the shipyard of the VOC in 1813, after buying the yard from the WIC already in 1740. The MCC changed into a shipyard at the start of the 19th Century. After the abolition of the slave trade they built a lot of new ships. In 1889 all the work at the yard was stopped, subsequently, the American Theodore Mace opened The Vitrite Works factory at this location. This company, which made lamp bases, was declared bankrupt in 1893. It was sold publicly and the entrepreneurs C. Boudewijnse and M.A. van der Leijé bought it in order to continue with the production of electric lamp bases, naming the factory simply ‘The Vitrite’. They started working together with NV Philips in 1920, which resulted in it becoming a daughter company of the famous technology company. In 1985, at the moment it was the biggest producer of ‘bulb foots’ in the world, the factory was moved to the industrial site in Arnestein.
13: VOC - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar And Slaves
The MCC bought the shipyard of the VOC in 1813, after buying the yard from the WIC already in 1740. The MCC changed into a shipyard at the start of the 19th Century. After the abolition of the slave trade they built a lot of new ships. In 1889 all the work at the yard was stopped, subsequently, the American Theodore Mace opened The Vitrite Works factory at this location. This company, which made lamp bases, was declared bankrupt in 1893. It was sold publicly and the entrepreneurs C. Boudewijnse and M.A. van der Leijé bought it in order to continue with the production of electric lamp bases, naming the factory simply ‘The Vitrite’. They started working together with NV Philips in 1920, which resulted in it becoming a daughter company of the famous technology company. In 1985, at the moment it was the biggest producer of ‘bulb foots’ in the world, the factory was moved to the industrial site in Arnestein.In order to understand the size of the ships that were build here, we can take a look at the ship ‘d’Eenigheid’, which was build in 1760. Its hull was approximately 23x7 meters, it could carry a crew of 18 till 36 men and would be able to ship 325 slaves after it was modified. The journey that the ship took from 1761-1763 can be followed digitally: http://eenigheid.slavenhandelmcc.nl. The size of the lock at the Dokbrug restricted ships in their width. When you walk over the bridge you can see how small the distance is. The pavement shows where the doors of the lock were located.
14: The Spijkerbrug - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
This fascinating bridge was build in 1853, and is called Spijkerbrug and used to be a drawbridge. In old Dutch Spijker or Spiker means ‘warehouse’. It is named after the warehouses that were located at the corner of the Kinderdijk. Many buildings carry the name of a beast of burden: like the Oliphant (Elephant) or Kemel (Camel).When following the route you would go to the right, but if you walk a bit further to the left you might see at nr. 30 the warehouse De Moriaan, built in 1654. Just like Den Eenhoorn it was used by the WIC. Although the composition of the outer walls is saved, the original façade is barely there. The location of this warehouse is also very favorable; ships passed it when they would sail through the canal towards the city. The canal was made in 1532-1535 in order to replace the creek the Arne that was congesting. At Nieuw- en Sint Joosland, right in front of the café the ‘Roode Leeuw’, ships would enter the open water between Zuid-Beveland and Walcheren, called ‘het Vlakke’. Later it was not possible to use this anymore and a new channel was made towards fort Rammekens: the channel of Welsinge.
15: Rotterdamse Kaai - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
The old office of the VOC was located on the Rotterdamsekaai; right on that spot there now is a house that has a model of a ship in the window. The office used the space of three buildings, which had a big new façade in 1711. Right behind it there was a big warehouse complex, over 98 meters deep. The entrance of this area was at the Breestraat. During the bombing in Second World War the office was hit as well. It was completely destroyed and never rebuilt. The poem ‘Poseidon’ written by Hans Warren and painted on the side of Restaurant nr. 7 mentions the function of Middelburg as a city with an important harbor.
16: Oostkerk - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
The majestic Oostkerk is a dome-like church with 8 angles. Several famous builders like Arend van ‘s Gravesande and Pieter Post constructed the church between 1646 and 1667. It was a very costly project and quite often during the process the construction had to be stopped, due to a lack of funds. In order to have enough money, the city council even started to tax beer and wine!Across from the church, the house on number 13, is called Bogt van Guinee. This refers to the Gulf of Guinea, the sea at the West coast of Africa, over which many slaves started their journey towards America.
17: Warehouse Demerary - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
The name of this warehouse refers to Demerara, or Demerary, which is both a river as well as a district in Guyana, South America. Several plantations were placed around the start of the river, ass well as the district center Stabroek. Later this became Georgetown, the current capital city of Guyana. The Warehouse was probably used by the WIC or a private company. For a while it has been used as a mosque, currently someone lives in the building and another part is used as an architect’s office.
18: Spaniard Street - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar And Slaves
In 1763, the cocoa trader Michiel Lorenz was allowed to open the eleventh cocoa mill of Middelburg, in his warehouse located in the Spanjaardstraat. The houses on number 45 and 47 were owned by Peter Moorenlandt in the 18th Century, although his name is mentioned on number 49: throughout history some names have been changed. When the backyard of the building was renovated, many shells of cowries were found. They probably ended up there after they could not be used anymore as a currency.In 1763, the cocoa trader Michiel Lorenz was allowed to open the eleventh cocoa mill of Middelburg, in his warehouse located in the Spanjaardstraat. The houses on number 45 and 47 were owned by Peter Moorenlandt in the 18th Century, although his name is mentioned on number 49: throughout history some names have been changed. When the backyard of the building was renovated, many shells of cowries were found. They probably ended up there after they could not be used anymore as a currency.
19: Balans - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
A monument to commemorate slavery is located right at the center of the Balans. The statue is made by Hedi Bogaers, commissioned by Stichting Monument Middelburg, and revealed on the 2nd of July in 2005. Annually, on the 1st of July, people gather here to remember the history of slavery and the role of Zeeland in the transatlantic slave trade. On the 1st of July in 1863, slavery was officially abolished in The Netherlands; fifty years before, on the 14th of June 1814, slave trade was illegalized. The black and white parts of the statue symbolize the connection between the African and European descendants of those who were involved or a victim of slave trade. In the middle of the construction there is a red vein going to the hart of the statue. Through it runs the same blood, to the same hart; it is the blood of the many victims of slave trade and slavery, which connects everyone in the Netherlands. At the basis of the statue the following text can be read: ‘van de voorouders - aan de kinderen – de gemeenschap – de toekomst’ (from the ancestors - to the children – the community – the future )Because of the fact that Zeeland was so much involved in the Dutch slave trade and plantations, it is a good thing that a monument to remember this would be placed in Middelburg. The location within the city, the Balans, was also purposively chosen. The little square is named after the scales of the city that was located here until 1823. Around the square there were many buildings that were in some way linked to the MCC. In 1823 the house of commerce was also demolished. The building was located at Balans 17 and was used as a meeting place for directors and main participants of the MCC. The main warehouse of the MCC can still be seen, it is the big building across from the Balans Square. Currently, the Centrum Beeldende Kunst Zeeland uses the ground floor and above this apartments were build. The buildings at the corner of the Balans and Wagenaarstraat were also property of the MCC. The St. Jorisdoelen, for example, was used as a meeting place by the MCC for a while. The building was destroyed in 1940, but has been very well reconstructed. The provincial council resided in the Abbey from 1574 onwards.
20: The Griffin - Middelburg: Cocoa, Sugar and Slaves
The country house ‘De Griffioen’ was owned by Hermanus van de Putte. He built the small tea house in the garden.
